Actinolite- Actinolite- Actinolite, or Yangqishi (3wó) as known in Chinese, is a mineral found in many ancient Chinese jade artifact. Actinolite is a common ferromagnesian (iron and magnesium) mineral present in metamorphic rocks. Actinolite and tremolite are the two predominant silicate minerals found in Chinese jade. The colour spectrum for Chinese jade encompasses a diverse range of colours: various shades of green, white, yellow, grey or brown. The opacity of the mineral range from translucent to semi-transparent. The darker colour of a jade is indicative of its iron content or what is less commonly referred to as ferrous mineral content. The more iron a metamorphic rock contains, the darker it's color. This holds true for Chinese jade as iron content will greatly effect its intensity of color. White and grey nephrite is almost exclusively tremolite rich or high in magnesium. Green, yellow or brown nephrite is actinolite rich and is much higher in iron content.
Chinese jade encompasses a broad range of minerals including nephrite, which is a soft jade, and jadeite which is a hard jade as well as many other minerals that are close relatives to jade. The color range of nephrite and jadeite overlap to a significant degree, but in general jadeite will have a higher intensity of tone than nephrite. Even though there is a high degree of overlap in color between nephrite and jadeite, nephrite will never be found in brilliant green or pink. In relation to the mineral actinolite, which is the iron rich mineral in Chinese jade, the higher the percentage of actinolite in a sample, the darker the color of the jade. Conversely, as we decrease the iron content and increase the magnesium content in a jade, we will find a higher amount of tremolite present and thus the sample can be classified as a nephrite or soft jade. Jadeite is another mineral which falls under the broad range of minerals that are known as Chinese jade. Jadeite is a true mineral on its own, unlike nephrite, and is actually a sodium aluminium silicate rather than a ferromagnesian mineral. Jadeite differs from nephrite in its chemical composition as well as its associated secondary minerals which helps to differentiate the two in weathered samples. Jadeite is not an amphibole group mineral like nephrite, it is instead a pyroxene group mineral and has uniform chemical composition. In scientific terms this means that nephrite cannot be classified as a mineral on its own because it is actually a hybrid mineral comprised of varying percentages of the minerals actinolite and tremolite. A significant percentage of Chinese jade is in fact nephrite. Even though jadeite has very appealing gemological characteristics, it is associated primarily with Ching Dynasty jade works dating from approximately AD 1730 and on ward. Jadeite is therefore referred to as a 'new jade' to distinguish it from nephritic jade which has a greater degree of historical significance and was a common medium of jade works dating back to neolithic times.
Physical properties of jades
Nephrite will be found in a wider range of colours than jadeite and will encompass many shades of brown and green as well as white and yellow. In addition, nephrite will appear duller and will not show as bright of a reflection when its surface is polished. This characteristic owes to both it lack of good cleavage planes and its lower refractive index than jadeite. When testing in the field the fracture of actinolite is splintery; it is thin and elongated and produces good cleavages or partings. This is opposite to tremolite which will appear as a granular texture when fractured. (seen on the left in image 1 below). This is an effective way of determining that an artifact is jade rather than common glass. Common glass, like the mineral chalcedony on the following image, will have a conchoidal or circular fracture.
(Picture taken from Jade, by Roger Keverne,1995)
Geological characteristics of actinolite
Habit (How it commonly appears in rocks)
Bladed - Aggregates of thin
lath-like crystals.
Radial - Crystals radiate from a
centre without producing stellar forms.
Fibrous - Crystals made up of fibers.
Hardness: 5.5 - Knife Blade
Luminescence: Non-fluorescent.
Luster: Vitreous (Glassy)
Streak: white
Bi (bi disc)- Bi disc is a particular type of disc-shaped ancient Chinese jade ware. As the name suggests, a bi disc is a flat circular piece of jade with a concentric circular hole in the center. Strictly speaking, what distinguishes bi discs from other types of disc-shaped jade ware is the size of the hole in relation to the disc. The diameter of the hole should be less than (and not equal to) half of the bi disc’s diameter. In other words, the diameter of the hole should not exceed the width of the solid track-like section. Most bi discs have relatively small holes with diameters measuring about one-third of the full disc diameter. The disc-shaped jade wares with larger holes are referred to as “yuan disc,” and the ones with a hole diameter roughly equal to its track width are called “huan discs.” First appearing in Neolithic times and extending through the Han Dynasty these discs have a hole in the centre of varying size. While bi discs were sometimes used as offerings in spiritual ceremonies in Neolithic China, it functions mainly as a gift between people in later Chinese history. In the ceremonial context, historians have noted that bi-discs may have been buried as offerings to divine figures. Given the presence of bi discs in Neolithic tombs, archaeologist have also postulated that bi discs were burial possessions that represented social status and the desire for spiritual protection. In the more social context, the intrinsic value of jade and the laborious jade craftsmanship make them gifts of luxury. The roundness of concentric circles and the smoothness of jade also connote harmony; therefore, bi discs were often given as gifts of peace.
The circular disc shaped jade wares fall into one of three classifications based on the ratio of hole space to disc surface area:
bi- Disc with a small hole relative to its overall diameter. Usually the hole diameter is approximately equal to 1/3 the overall disc diameter. (Image #1)
huan- Discs with the hole diameter roughly equal to its track width. (Image #2)
yuan-
Discs with a large hole diameter relative to total disc diameter.
(Image #3)
1.
2.
3. 
(Pictures taken from Jades from China, by Angus Forsyth. Brian McElney, 1994)
Bixie- A mythical winged animal that is often depicted as having the tiger face, dragon horns, and lion body. The popularization of this imaginary creature can be traced back to the Han dynasty. During the Han dynasty, many of the flying tigers and winged lion that appear in folklores took form in reality as artisans morphed together features of different animals to create chimeras and fantastical beasts. And within the generic category of the chimera, the bixie enjoys the most popularity and fame, because the name has a direct association with the Chinese word for "warding off evil." Originally, the Han dynasty bixies were place at the tomb gate to serve as guardians, but as time went on, their apotrapaic name became popularized and they became classic guardians and auspicious symbols.
Blade- Broadly speaking, the category "jade blade" encompasses a variety of jade objects from jade axes to jade knives. However, leaving aside the easily identifiable weapons such as daggers and swords, the most intriguing type of jade blade is the rectangular tablet which is shaped thin and flat. The sides of these tablets are often smooth and angular. Very often, the body of the tablets are pierced with circular holes whose precise function remain enigmatic to scholars. In the study of Chinese jade, these long rectangular jade tablets are also referred to as a ceremonial blade, a sceptre, or more properly, a 'guei'. Like the cong tube and the bi disc, the guei is a ritual object whose history dates back to the Neolithic period. Whereas the cong was the feminine icon of nobility, the guei was its masculine counter part. Historians postulated that these were status markers held in hands when court officials meet or attended ceremonies. How the scepter came to become a status icon is a fascinating topic. There are several hypothesis on the precise origin of the guei, and the most popular version is that the guei evolved from the stone or jade axe. For instance, the outward flaring shape of the blades tip is a close approximation of the shape of ploughs that were prevalent in neolithic time, and the tapered cutting edge is also reminiscent of its functional nature. The axe theory states that because blades were essential to the lives of the early cultures so the form was adapted in creating sacred objects. While this is very convincing, Na Zhi Liang, jade scholar and curator of the jade collection at Taiwan's National Palace Museum, find this reductive and points out that blades of all shapes were used, so historians should further investigate the relationship between the guei and earlier forms of stone gods.
(Picture taken from Jades from China, Angus Forsyth. Brian McElney, 1994)
Buddhism in China- When Buddhism was first introduced to China in the Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 24 AD), the Chinese Buddhist found that the Gandara black stones of the Indian Buddha sculptures were incompatible with the traditions and aesthetics of the Chinese culture, so they opted for gold or gilded bronze as alternative material. However, the choice of metal limited the source of material and restrained the propagation of the religion, so they chose stones and ceramics as an alternative. In turning to earthy materials, the strong affinity between the preciousness of jade and the sacredness of the religious subject dawned on them, and jade became the ideal material for representing Chinese Buddhist sculptures. By the late Six dynasties, the tradition of jade Buddha sculpture has already been firmly established and recorded in historical documents. Under cultural and economic prosperity, Buddhism reached its height during the Tang Dynasty. Chang-an (present day Xian), the capital of Tang Dynasty, became the center of Buddhist learning in East Asia. Thousands of monasteries and temples were built throughout the country in order to bring the teachings of Buddha to the people. Buddhism maintains its strong influence throughout Chinese history, and as the once-foreign religion becomes more integrated into people's daily lives, the religion also becomes increasingly sinofied. The depiction of the Bodhisattvas, for instance, often reflected the Chinese ideals of feminine beauty that corresponded to each period.
Crystal Growth- Crystal growth will occur as a result of diagenisis during rock formation. Diagenisis is a term that describes changes that take place in rocks at low temperatures and pressures after initial deposition or during prolonged burial. Diagentic processes include compaction as well as cementation and recrystallisation and will be accelerated by exposure to juvenile or meteoric water during burial. Juvenile water is water that emanates from deep within the earth and will often be rich in dissolved solids as well as silicates. Meteoric water is a term that describes water that has percolated down through the upper crust as the result of precipitation. Both juvenile and meteoric waters present the opportunity for buried jade artifacts to have their surfaces exposed to solutions which may impact the rocks chemistry as well as surface texture. The process of weathering is in essence the action of solutions as well as mechanical re-working of the surface features of a rock. Often when artifacts are exposed to ground waters for prolonged periods during burial, diagenetic processes will take place. Contact with solutions will promote the alteration of surface features by the emplacement of foreign crystal species within cavities or cracks pre-existing on an artifact. Increased temperature due to location and depth of burial can influence the rate of buildup of secondary minerals on the surface. Silicate minerals are common secondary minerals that will be found in association with jade artifacts. Tremolite and dolomite as well as calcite are common crystalline minerals that are found on the surface of these altered artifacts. Crystal growth will commonly occur on many of the various rock types that comprise Chinese jade. The mineral serpentine has been a source material for Chinese jade sculptures throughout history. Like nephrite, serpentine will easily alter by solution and is often found in association with the mineral dolomite. While both of these minerals share similar roles in Chinese artifacts, their difference in chemical composition results in a minor difference in hardness. For instance, dolomite is a common alteration mineral that may be present as a secondary mineral on serpentine that has been exposed to water and carbon dioxide, and thus can potentially aid in identification of a source region for ancient Chinese sculptures.
Cong (t' sung)- A rectangular or triangle tube-shaped hollow jade artifact, often with decorative motifs on the outer surface. Congs resemble a square-based pillar with a hollow cylinder in the center, and the cylindrical tube section protrudes slightly from both ends. More specifically, congs have a square shaped cross-section with a circular hole just slightly smaller than the square. (Diameter of inner circle would be the width of the square minus the thickness of the wall on both sides.) The practical function of the cong is not definitive, but historians suggest that congs could be the female counterpart of the 'guei' (jade sceptres carried by male court members) and are symbolic possessions of the female court members. The ancient Chinese culture believed that the sky was round and the earth was square. Because of the circle-within-square design of the cong, congs symbolized the harmony between heaven and earth and were mentioned in historical ritual documents as ceremonial offerings to the earth. These unusual items were first discovered amongst the artifacts of the Neolithic Liangzhu culture where this form seems to have gained its most dominance. Congs have also been found in tombs belonging to members of the aristocracy during later periods. This finding in burial excavation would indicate that many of these prized congs were in fact family heirlooms that passed down through consecutive generations. These artifacts would likely have made their way into tombs as burial possessions of the wealthy and elite. Cong often appear in association with bi-discs in tombs, so it is likely that both of these items would have had a function in the burial ceremony and may also be in fact related. This being the case, their specific function still remains largely unknown. The cong can be found in many varied forms with the main difference being in their overall length as well as the surface motif they exhibit. Below are shown images of both the long form cong and the short form cong.
(Picture taken from Jades from China, Angus Forsyth. Brian McElney, 1994)
Daigo- S-curved clothing accessory often with a rod-like base on the underside. Jade daigo hooks first became popular during the Warring States, and despite its later prominence in the Han culture (here, 'Han' refers the dominant race of central China, rather than as a dynasty), the use of hooks (rather than buckles) to secure belts and sashes is considered a concept that was imported from the marginal tribal cultures. Evident from the amazing intricacy of various ancient jade daigo hooks, the ornament had obviously been elevated well above its functional purpose to serve as status symbols. Nevertheless, its precise method of usage is still a fascinating topic. Most historians have suggested that the round protruding knob is inserted into a button-hole-like structure to secure the daigo to the belt, then a fabric loop of corresponding jade ring could be hooked and unhooked onto the curved section. As for its placement on the body, some see it as an alternative waist belt buckle, and others have suggested that it could be dangled at the end of the sash for hanging removable ornaments. And the one usage that still have currency today is the style where the daigo is worn as a sash holder just below the shoulder on the chest. Many of the Buddhist monks today still utilize similar mechanism to secure the shawl-like fabric which they wear as a part of their religious outfit.
Drill Hole- In the literature, jade is commonly referred to as having been carved. Carving is a term that has been historically associated with forming an object by the use of a sharp metal blade, much like the process of whittling a wood object. Despite its prevalent usage, "carving" is actually a poor term to use when describing the features present on an ancient Chinese jade sculpture. In fact, Chinese jade sculptures were produced by a process of drilling and grinding rather than carving. Using a steel blade to shape the form of the artifact would not have been an option when Chinese jade source materials have a Mohs hardness of between 5.5 and 7.0. A steel blade with a hardness of 6.0 would not be an effective tool for shaping many of the other minerals that Chinese jade encompasses. The raw material, which in most sculptures was nephrite, would have been shaped by drilling and grinding with substances of greater hardness, such as quartz crystals and corundum. The features present on the sculptures represent many days or weeks of methodical grinding and rubbing that would be repeated until the desired shape was achieved. The drilling of holes into Chinese jade was achieved in a similar fashion using hard minerals and repeatedly rotating or spinning the grinding mineral until a bore hole was achieved. It is believed that this drilling crystal would have been fastened to the end of a wooden shaft to form a functional drilling tool. For very small holes a cotton or twine matrix would be softened by water and impregnated with quartz crystals that are more resilient than nephrite, serpentine or jadeite. When dried, this sandy twine would become rigid and made a suitable equivalent to to a modern, yet somewhat flexible drill bit. Such clever tool may account for the artisan's ability to drill curved holes through the stone to create small pendants.
Diagenesis- Changes that take place in rocks at low temperatures and pressures after initial deposition are referred to as diagenesis. These processes include compaction as well as cementation and recrystallization. More specifically, cementation is a chemical process that will result in the chemical bonding of two materials together. Cementation is not merely a mechanical process as it has often been confused. Diagenesis is a term that is used to describe the processes that have taken place to alter an artifact subsequent to burial; however, it can involve the interaction of the sculpture material with solutions in the ground as well as gases that migrate from the atmosphere. The secondary minerals that are present on the surface of Chinese jade are a direct result of the diagenetic process. Calcite, tremolite, diopside, actinolite, pyrite, as well as various other minerals can be deposited during diagenesis and will frequently be present in some form on the surface of ancient artifacts. The deposits resulting from diagenesis are often referred to as encrustation, but caution should be used in the casual use of this term. Encrustation more appropriately refers to the mechanical buildup of material rather than a chemical accretion or precipitation of minerals to the surface of an artifact. Due to the nature of chemical reactions, it is impossible to estimate exactly how long secondary minerals may have taken to form. Precipitation time depends on the environmental conditions of temperature as well solution concentration. Precipitation rates can range from hundreds of hours to hundreds of thousands of years. As a general rule, the larger the crystal size and the more perfect its symmetry, the slower the precipitation process would have been. This is a very general observation, but the presence of secondary minerals does indicate that an artifact has been buried for at least a portion of its life. It also indicates that the artifact is indeed very old, because the precipitation of the common secondary minerals that are found are exceedingly difficult to synthesize even in a well controlled laboratory setting.
Encrustation- A general description of encrustation is an overlaying coating of contrasting material on a surface of an object. In geological terms, encrustation is associated with the buildup of extraneous materials on the surface of an object that is the result of compaction during burial. Encrustation can also occur by other mechanical means. An example of another form of encrustation is when the surface of an object, usually a roughly circular pebble, is coated by another material as it repeatedly rolls back and forth. This rolling process would take place during the rise and fall of tides. Yet another example of encrustation would be a surface buildup on a boulder that results from rolling down an embankment as would occur during a rock slide or avalanche. These two situations periodically take place in the natural environment but are of little importance in the study of Chinese jade. The process of encrustation, in the case of Chinese jade, would mean that it is resulted from prolonged burial. The surface overlay that forms during burial owes its origin to loose detritus material that falls into a grave site or tomb from surrounding areas during excavation or by environmental processes such as periodic flooding. In every circumstance, the term encrustation is used to describe a buildup of residue on the surface of a carving that is not bonded by chemical means.
Gangmao- a classic Han dynasty garment jade ornament that is shaped like a miniature rectangular pillar with inscriptions on all four sides. In the Han dynasty customs, gangmaos are intended to be worn in January as a greeting to the emperor. The word "gang" means strong, and the word "mao" is pictorially similar to the last name "Liu" of the Han imperial family. Together, the gangmao expressed good wishes for a stronger empire led by the Liu family. As an interesting historical interlude, the wearing of gang mao was temporarily banned during the mid-Han period ruled by Wang Mang -- the revolutionary (or "rebel" from the Han perspective). Such restriction may seem frivolous, but after his hard struggle to take over the Liu empires, it was understandable that Wang Mang would not want the people to continue hailing prosperity for the Liu family.
Ground Water- Water is the medium that normally occupies the space between rocks within the earth. Ground water can be classified into two distinct categories based on its origin. The two categories that are of importance in the discussion of ground water are juvenile water (waters that have emanated from the inner earth) and meteoric water (waters that are derived from surface rains percolating into the ground). The source of ground water is of importance in the process of diagenesis. Juvenile waters typically have their origin from deep within the earth. As these waters migrate upward towards the surface due to tectonic processes, they eventually find their way to direct contact with buried artifacts. The long migratory process of these juvenile waters provides ample opportunity to pick up a wide variety of ions in solution. Water influx from the surface as well as from within the earth maintains a balance that determines the chemical composition of surface ground water at any region on the earth. Many ancient Chinese grave sites exist very close to the surface of the earth, and therefore are influenced greatly by meteoric waters, however in protected areas entombed deeper within the earth as well as in more arid regions, the influence of juvenile waters may in fact be greater than meteoric water. The importance of this discussion relates to the percentage of suspended solids within the water and its overall chemical composition. Juvenile waters will have more ions suspended in solution and minerals will precipitate readily upon contact with a buried artifact. Therefore, as would be predicted, deep burial will often lead to more secondary mineral development. There exists a complex balance in the chemical reaction that takes place to precipitate minerals upon an artifact which includes available gases, temperature, and hydrogen and oxygen ion concentration. All these environmental factors will influence the rate of mineral deposition and the mere presence of secondary minerals attest to the age of ancient artifacts. Modern scientific methods provide accurate age determinations for jade with the vast majority of data provided by secondary minerals. Please refer to scientific methods for a further explanation of current dating techniques.
Guanyin- Guanyin is the Chinese name for the Bodhisattva of Compassion (Avalokiteshvara), and amongst the many Bodhisattvas of the Buddhist religion, Guanyin was the most popular in Chinese Buddhism. Because of the emphasis on mercy and compassion, the traditionally male/androgynous figure of the bodhisattva became feminized in the Chinese culture. In many of the folklores, storytellers have affectionately (albeit somewhat unorthodoxly) given Guanyin a Chinese childhood as the youngest daughter of an affluent general. The depiction of the Guanyin figure varies widely and often reflected the period's particular definition of feminine beauty. Very often, she holds some type of Buddhist ritual objects or her hands would be poised in Buddhist gestures. In the folk version, she often holds a small vase in her hand, which symbolizes her mercy and is said to contain her tears that sooths the pain and suffering of the carnal world. Because of such intimate relationship between the Guayin and the people, Guanyin sculptures of all types of materials can be found in Chinese homes and jade guanyin ornaments are often worn as worn as a symbolic ornament of constant companion and guardian.
Hongshan- Late Neolithic period culture in China, primarily the Manchurian area including Liaoning province and Inner Mongolia. The Hongshan culture (ca. 3500-2500 B.C.) is known for its ceremonial complexes and jade artwork. The Hongshan culture unlike the early neolithic peoples developed a very sophisticated society. The Hongshan people show a wide variety of ceremonial structures associated with burial. It was of utmost importance for jades to be buried in the tombs of the Hongshan people. The major artifacts associated with their tombs are axes as well as pendants and pig-dragons. The skilfully crafted jade objects demonstrate the Hongshan culture's skills and technology in jade crafting. More importantly, amongst the vast range of Hongshan jade wares, the curious prevalence of mythicised animals and zoo morphic human figures were fascinating expression of spirituality and creativity. Because the features of the Hongshan animal figures are mostly bold and exaggerated, they were often ignorantly dismissed by untrained modern critics as primitive expressions of a culture not yet skilled in realistic depiction. However, in the eyes of art historians and anthropologists, exaggerated or modified representations of either real (or imaginary) objects concepts are expressions and acknowledgement of art. More importantly, the use of art in ritual objects (i.e. burial possessions) demonstrated the culture's ability to transform art into symbolic embodiments of social concepts and spiritual beliefs. In view of this, the zoo morphic jade creatures should not be merely considered as quaint ornaments. Instead, they should be regarded as expressions of sophisticated spirituality. In addition to the zoo morphic figures and pendants, flat axes can be found in great abundance buried in a pattern that generally aligns with the limbs of bodies within burial sites. Other items of importance to the Hongshan culture include hoof-shaped ornaments, pig-dragons, and pendants of abstract shapes that are commonly referred to as cloud pendants. As evidenced in the many archeological digs that have taken place in China, it appears that jades that could be worn were of utmost importance to the Hongshan culture. The Hongshan peoples paid careful attention to detail in the construction of their ornaments as evident in the detailed motifs that can be found on the numerous artifacts present in their burial sites. This intricate artistic work make Hongshan artifacts a prize for many collectors.
Huang- A half moon-shaped jade plaque resembles a bisected bi disc. This ornament is a genre of Chinese jade produced since early neolithic period. Huang has been found in tombs that range from the neolithic to the Ching dynasty. In archaeological sites, Liangzhu huangs are often found on the chest of the corpse with beads arranged above it in necklace-like formation. Given such arrangement, the huang was most likely worn as a pendant with beads forming as complementary ornaments. In comparison to the bi disc or the cong, fewer Liangzhu huangs have been found. Archaeologists have also noted that the jade wares found in tombs with Liangzhu huangs often exhibit more intricate carvings than those found in other tombs. Such correlation between the quality of carving and the presence of the huang has led historians to postulate the cultural significance of the huang in relation to social status.
(Picture taken from Jades from China, Angus Forsyth. Brian McElney, 1994)
Isotropic- A term used primarily to describe the nature of light. As light passes through a specimen, it will exhibit the same properties in all directions. The origin of this behaviour is based on the uniformity of the crystalline structure of the material that the light is passing through. This measure relates to a minerals refractive index. The term isotropic can also be used when describing a material with other uniform properties, such as density, electrical conductivity, magnetic permeability. Any properties that do not vary with distance or direction or with magnetic, electrical, or electromagnetic properties can be described as being isotropic. In the examination of Chinese jade we are primarily interested in the isotropic behaviour of light; however, by testing the uniformity of density as well as the presence of foreign species or impurities an estimation of source region can be made. This estimation is achieved through comparative studies and in no way can be considered determinative.
Jade- The word 'jade' came from the word piedra hijada or loin stone coined by Spanish explorers in A.D. 1554. These explorers discovered natives in Central America who used small nephritic pebble stones to ease kidney ailments. Thus the word 'nephrite' (Greek word 'nephros' for kidney) is used to denote a certain type of jade. However, the traditional Western concept of jade does not allow us to fully appreciate the more diverse application of what the Chinese called Yu (the Chinese word for jade). Yu encompasses a wide variety of minerals ranging from soft material such as marble and soapstone to relatively hard minerals such as nephrite and jadeite, subject to aesthetic perspective. Chinese jade is dominantly represented by the two most well known types of jade, nephrite and jadeite. Chinese jade actually includes an assortment of other minerals that would have looked to the early craftsman as identical in many regards. In fact even with modern techniques it can be difficult to differentiate nephrite from some of its close relatives. One thing common to all these minerals is that they have similar physical properties, and are very hard which makes them an excellent medium for sculpting. Jadeite has an exceptional ability to transmit light, and in proper light conditions will produce an iridescent glow. Nephrite will exhibit lesser translucent properties due to it's magnesium and iron content; however, it is a very resilient mineral and can be found in a variety of colours making it a very appealing source material for the early Chinese craftsman.
Kirin- The kirin is one of the most well-known mythical animals in the Chinese culture, though it's visual appearance is often confused with that of other auspicious figures such as the tianlu (single horned chimera) and bixie (two horned chimera). According to ancient Han dynasty texts, the kirin is a benevolent mythical beast with the body of a deer, the tail of an ox, and a singular horn on its head which has often earned it the title of "Chinese unicorn" in Western discussions of Chinese art. This Han dynasty description, however, is by no means definitive, and the distinction between the chimera and kirin is also not clearly stated. Moreover, just as the depiction of dragons changed and varied from dynasty to dynasty, so too do the visual appearance of other imaginary creatures. By the Ming to Ching dynasty (see reference image), the body of the kirin is often scaled and may resemble either the body of the deer or a lion. The horns are also no longer restricted to the conventional singular horn as many of the later kirins have two horns. The main distinguishing feature that remains consistent throughout its evolution is the hoofed legs that originated from its deer body. Overall, the kirin takes on numerous dragon-like characteristics as it becomes the emblem for court officials who rank immediately beneath the emperor who is represented by the dragon. And it is precisely because of this courtly association that kirins become a symbol of prosperity, and figures of child riding kirin become a genre in Chinese art that expresses good wishes for a child's future career advancement.
Liangzhu- Located in the modern day Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces of China, the Liangzhu culture (ca. 3000 - 2000 B.C.) is one of the late Neolithic cultures that produced an astonishing quantity of fine jade wares. Liangazhu jade artifacts include many of the classic types of ceremonial jade wares that show potential connection with other Neolithic cultures. For instance, large numbers of bi discs, axes, and congs were found in Liangzhu excavation sites. However, what sets the Liangzhu jade wares apart from those of other cultures is the sophisticated carving techniques exemplified by the finely engraved or relieved patterns on the jade artworks. The most distinguished Liangzhu pattern would be the face icon (see reference image 1). These images are often found on the four corners of the cong, with the edge serving as the vertical axis of symmetry. The beady eyes encircled in large oval shaped outlines is one major defining characteristic, and the parallel lines above the face is another identifier that scholar interpret as symbol hats or status markers. The emphasis on geometry can also be seen from the segmented design of the Liangzhu cong. As we can see from examples of Liangzhu cong (see reference image 2), the Liangzhu jade artisan's ability to create bold icons with intricate details involves skillfully combining both geometric grooves and shallow incisions. The complexity of such work demonstrates the artistic and technical maturity of a culture that flourished more than 4000 years ago.
Nephrite- An important type of Chinese jade, and the main source material used for ancient Chinese jade wares before the 18th century. The chemical composition of Nephrite is {Ca2(Mg.Fe)5Si8O22(OH)2}, and nephrite has the a refractive index of 1.62 and a hardness reading of 6.5 on the Moh's scale. Depending on the amount of magnesium, iron, or other minerals present in a specimen, the colour of a nephrite sample can range from various shades of white, red to green. The mineral's variety of colour makes it a versatile and pleasing material for jade crafting. Moreover, because of its iron content, the rock may take on a brown hue after long periods of natural weathering. Such natural process gives additional intrigue to archaic nephrite jadewares of very old age. In contemporary collection of Chinese jade, nephrite is most often compared with jadeite - the other prominent Chinese jade material. In comparison to jadeite, the colours of nephrite are more subtle and the material exhibits less translucency. Nevertheless, as many scholars have noted, the jade used in China appears to have been primarily (if not exclusively) nephrite until the eighteenth century, when steady supplies of jadeite began to be available through import. On the other hand, the usage and local availability of nephrite in China can be traced back to the Neolithic period. Therefore, when considering the history of Chinese jade, nephrite maintains its status as the dominant material of Chinese jade.
Notched Disc- A type of circular disc shaped jade ware of which the history can be traced back to the Neolithic period. Despite its long history, the notched disc's precise meaning remains a debatable topic for archaeologists and jade historians. Adding to the intrigue, this prominent jade type has also been assigned various Chinese names that each expresses the methodology behind the title. The one that most closely match the term "notched disc" is "Ya-Bi", which can be literally translated as "toothed bi disc." Such title is obviously a descriptive one that emphasizes the tooth-like notches along the outer rim. Another Chinese name for the notched disc is Qi-Bi, which literally means "axe bi disc." Bi refers to the classic disc shaped jade wares, and Qi refers to the flat trapezoidal axes that have serrated notches on the two sides. The underlying methodology of this title shows the taxonomical approach that categorizes the notched disc as a hybrid form between the bi disc and the jade axe. And this topic of hybrid jade types is certainly a topic that gains increasing prominence in both the eastern and western communities of jade experts. There is one name, however, that has slowly become obsolete as its rational has been rejected by contemporary researchers. Nevertheless, the history of it is fascinating and worthy noting. Diagrams of the notched disc appeared in scholarly Ching dynasty studies of ancient jade wares and it was labeled as a "xuan-ji" which is an ancient astronomical tool that phonetically sound like the Chinese word for enigma. The association between the disc and the xuanji was likely based on its swirl-like appearance, because the notches all slant toward one direction and suggest a whirlpool motion to the static form.
Pig Dragon- The pig dragon dates back to the Neolithic period (C.6000 - C. 1700 B.C.) and seems exclusive to the Hongshang culture. In most Chinese studies of archaic jade, such peculiar jade creature is often simply referred to as Neolithic mythical animals; however, its chubby curled up body, snouted face, and triangular ears have earned the creature its pig dragon title. Contemporary books on jade often refer to it as zhulong, which is simply the Chinese pronunciation for pig dragon. It is unlikely that the pig dragon is a realistic depiction of a real animal. Instead, anthropologists have postulated that the form of the pig dragon may have been inspired by the skeleton prints of crustacean animals left on fossils. Such mysterious image of the curled body would have seemed mystifying and appealing to the imaginative mind. Especially in context of the Neolithic predilection for zoomorphic arts, it is logical that the pig dragon was a morphing together of different animal traits, either real or imaginary. The pig dragons have important role in the study of Chinese jade and Chinese art in general, because these visual expressions of imaginary creatures are precursory to the predominance of the mythical dragon in Chinese culture. And the defining pig-like snout would be one strong evidence for this claim, as the snouted face is still part of the standard depiction of dragon even in modern illustrations.
Ruyi- Shaped like a horizontal stand with an arched back, ruyi is a giftware that was most popular during the Ching dynasty (see reference image). Its original function and its evolvement into precious jade giftware make up an amusing anecdote. The literal meaning of "ruyi" is "as you wish", and the name originally referred to long bamboo sticks with claw shaped heads that people use for scratching their back. This nifty backscratcher allowed one to relieve one's own hard-to-reach itches without having to ask for assistance or favors from others, so it gained the clever name "as you wish" (because it allows one to "scratch wherever you wish"!). Its auspicious name makes it a good gift idea, but a bamboo stick lacked propriety as a serious gift, so jade ruyis were made to add luxury and beauty to the plain bamboo backscratcher. Receivers of jade ruyis would obviously recognize the symbolic meaning and the preciousness of the gift, so the actual claw-shape of the scratching tool became less important. Eventually, the clawed end is carved into ornate shapes of clouds or rare medicinal fungi (lingzhi) and decorated with jewels. The extravagance of such prestigious giftware can be seen from the jade ruyis that once belong to the Ching dynasty imperial collection (see reference image below).
Taotie- The non-mythical definition of taotie refers to a glutton or a greedy person, and such meaning may have come from its mythical origin of the taotie as a legendary ferocious man-eating animal. The myths concerning the taotie have mostly been lost, and what we do know now is that to foreign clans and tribes, it symbolized fear and force, but to the possessor's own clan or tribe, it was a symbol of protection. Strangely, there does not seem to be a standardized depiction of the creature; instead, the figure is often highly aestheticized and incorporated into patterns and emblems (see reference). Because of its apotrapaic (evil averting) power, the taotie pattern can often be found on sword ornament and pendant that could be worn on the body. It should be noted that examples of employing fearsome motifs to ward off evil has a long tradition in Chinese art, but the term "taotie" did not become associated with the decorative pattern until Song dynasty scholars began researching Chinese art. This retroactive categorizing of the pattern may possibly explain the ambiguity of the pattern's distinguishing trait. Those who believe in a strict definition insist that the taotie has a diamond-shaped motif between the brows. However, in many reference books, the taotie pattern is synonymous with all emblematic beast faces, and such generalization is well accepted. Regardless of the precise definition, the styles of taotie pattern vary widely, and whether ornate and concise, these patterns have adorned jade ornaments throughout Chinese history.
Weng Zhong- Amongst the variety of jade figure pendants and ornament, there is particular type called the Weng-Zhong bead/pendant. These figures are easy to identify and are defined by the classic traits of the long robe with wide sleeves, the hands placed in front, the triangular beard, the simple incisions that denote the mouth and the eyes, and the flat topped hat. Interestingly, the story behind these miniature jade figures actually trace back to the legendary giant that guarded the palace gate of the Qin dynasty palace (221 - 206 B.C). In the popularized history, Weng Zhong was extraordinary tall and brave, and he exuded a strong aura that would put protruders in awe. The infamous Emperor Qin (Qin-Shi-Huang) assigned him to guard the palace gate, and Weng Zhong did an amazing job maintaining peace and safety. After his death, the court could not find another equally intimidating person, so they placed a bronze sculpture of Weng Zhong in front of the gate to scare off the enemies. The sculpture must have been very well made, because such strategy actually worked. In historical records, it was said that barbarians surveying from afar was fooled by the sculpture and called off the attack. In the subsequent Han dynasty (206 B.C - 220 A.D.), Wong Zhong sculptures became popularized and can be found in front of not only palace gates but also tomb gates. Most peculiarly, Wong Zhong became a popular costume ornament as people began making miniature jade Wong Zhong figurines that can be worn as a pendant or bead in the hope that Wong Zhong would help the wearer to ward off evil and danger.
Xie - the proper Chinese name for the archer' thumb ring, which has developed into an shield-shaped pendant that is more of a ornamental accessory than a functional one. And because of its heart-shaped outline, it is also often referred to as a chicken heart pendant. The xie ornament originated from the late Eastern Zhou thumb guard worn by archers for gaining a stronger pull on the string, but because of its aesthetic quality, even people who do not practice archery began wearing it as an ornament. Toward the late Warring States, the shape became modified (flatter and more decorative) as the thumb ornament gets developed into a pendant. The first reference image below the item photograph shows examples of various archer rings from the Warring States and Han dynasty jade. Note the increasingly ornamental trend of the historical development. By the Six Dynasties, the form has become quite ornate, and the functional hook is no long distinct at all. This progressively ornamental development would explain why the name "xie" gradually becomes replaced with the more description nickname "chicken heart pendant."
Y-Shaped Scepter - The defining traits of the Y-shaped scepter include its flat rectangular body, the ramified triangular top on the top, and the parallel horizontal grooves across the sceptre. In comparison to other types of jade wares, the Y-shaped scepters are less commonly found. Art historians and collectors have frequently praised the aesthetic appeal of the ripple-like grooves, yet they are still uncertain about its definite meaning or identity. Some have postulated that it represents the face of a mythical animal, because it resembles the frontal view of a pig dragon with the eyes and ears unwrapped and flattened. Such hypothesis is certainly possible, since both the Y-scepter and the pig dragon are considered exclusive to the Hongshan culture. However, given the dominance of the jade guei in Neolithic culture, and the discovery of Y-shaped scepters joined to other ritual jade types, such as the bi disc and the axe, the Y-shaped scepter may also be the Hongshan culture's creative variation of the classic guei.
Zoomorphic - Attribution of animal characteristics or qualities to a god, or the use of animal form in graphic representation. Zoomorphic figures can frequently be seen in jade artworks of the Neolithic age, and the spiritual or ritual function can often be found in its totem-like design. However, many of the Neolithic zoomorphic figures do not simply stack up the animals in an obvious hierarchical order. Instead, the dominant traits of different animal are morphed together to form mythical creature. Such hybrid expression of zoomorphism has a strong hold in the Neolithic culture, as it is evident in large number of Neolithic jade artifacts ranging from small pendants to massive sculptures. The common traits that frequently appear include bird wings, hooked eagle beak, rodent ears, pig snouts, insect bulging eyes, ox horns, cicada body, and of course, human features, especially the face and the limbs. By morphing together the various animal parts that each symbolize the strength of the animal, these zoomorphic creatures manifests the desire to create superior mythical beings that encompass the powers of multiple animals.
