Purpose: To identify minerals present in a sample and define the geological changes which have occurred on a mineral's surface through time. (Small sample required.)

This principal is based on the X-Ray irradiation of a powder sample of a given specimen. As X-Rays radiate the atoms within a mineral ions will be expelled from the inner orbits of the atoms. As outer orbit electrons fall back into inner orbits energy will be emitted in a process called fluorescence. By measuring the wavelength of the emitted radiation, which is like a fingerprint to each mineral, the primary and secondary composition of a sample can be determined. Trace minerals are indicative of weathering processes as well as exposure to burial. The primary mineral assemblage present can aid in determining the source region of a specimen which may have historical significance.

Purpose: Analyze organic substances which may have been preserved on the surface of a specimen. (Small sample required.)

This method of determining composition of surface minerals is based on the absorption of varying wavelengths of light that pass through a specimen. A mineral sample is atomized and sprayed into a burner. Light of a known spectra is projected through the atomized specimen. Every mineral will exhibit a characteristic signature based on its absorption of certain wavelengths of light. By using a neon discharge lamp in conjunction with an element of known wavelength allows for a determination of an elements presence in the sample. This method of mineral determination is effective for testing the type of environments and degree of weathering to which a specimen has been exposed. In order to obtain a reading of trace mineral compositions a reference sample must be destroyed by atomization. This method is only used in instances where a sample can be obtained, and is therefore of limited use for definitive dating of artistic pieces.

Purpose: Analyze the composition of layers and migration profiles via high resolution.

This procedure is one of the most effective in definitive trace mineral analysis. An important characteristic of this procedure is that the specimen need not be destroyed. This is of great importance when examining items of historical significance. The scientific principle is based on focusing a beam of electrons generated in the electron microprobe upon a specific region of a sample. By measuring the characteristic X-Rays emitted from the sample, the elemental composition of surface minerals can be determined. Especially effective on polished surfaces this procedure allows for trace element analysis as well as obtaining a high resolution image of surface features.

Purpose: Analyze how long a specimen has been in darkness.

This method of scientific measure is useful in determining the degree of thermal exposure of a rock sample. A rock that is exposed to higher temperatures, indicative of deeper burial within the earth's crust will show a higher degree of alignment within its isotropic minerals. As a general rule the alignment of constituent minerals within a specimen becomes greater with longer exposure to heat. Accordingly a specimen will exhibit a higher degree of thermal conductivity as a result of prolonged exposure to heat sources within the earth. If a mineral is of a pure composition there will be a less random distribution of constituent minerals and therefore a higher degree of thermal conductivity should be exhibited. As a general rule pure mineral samples will exhibit greater thermal conductivity. Determination of the purity of the mineral sample will be a function in its thermal conductivity as well as the mineral assemblages present.

Purpose: Identifies the exact mineral composition of a specimen. (Small sample is required.)

This method of examining mineral composition is very accurate. Like Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS) this can be used as a definitive determination of base mineral composition. This test can aid in determining the primary source of mineral supply based on characteristic inclusions, and therefore can aid in dating a specimen. Also the presence of indicator minerals can aid in determining the degree of exposure to burial as well as past exposure to suspension within a fluid matrix.

Similar to Electron Spectroscopy but with the use of infra-red radiation rather than a pulse of electrons. Method is desirable in the case of historical items as destructive testing is not required. Used to identify the presence of silicate group minerals within a specimen. By determining the presence of amphiboles it is possible to separate the iron rich jadeite from the silicate rich nephrite.

Purpose: These tools allow the user to 'see' foreign substance/s that inhabits on or inside the surface.

These substance can be cause by the following:
-A change in pH underground.
-Acidic ground water.
-Absorption of other minerals.
-Dye from buried items. (i.e.: fabric, wood stain)
-Soil acidity.
-Foreign mineral inside that may give a wrong reading.
It is the PATTERN OF SPECTRUM that identifies the substance, not simply whether or not it glows.

Purpose: Identifies the reflective Index (R.I.) of a mineral specimen and allows us to narrow down (and sometimes pinpoint) the identity of a mineral.

Using a petrographic microscope or a refractometer it is possible to determine the refractive index of a mineral. Refractive index generally refers to the reflective properties of a mineral; however, on a microscopic level refractive index is a measure that can be used to determine mineral identity. This is achieved by comparing the refractive index of a sample mineral to that of water which has an R.I. =1.0. The measurment of refractive index is gauged in relation to that of water which is often used as the medium of suspension in thin sections. Minerals will exhibit characteristic properties in thin section under a polarizing microscope. The behavior of light that passes through minerals will change with the introduction of a polarizing filter thus allowing refractive indicies to be measured. Pleochroism is a term used to describe the way a minerals absorption properties will behave through 360 degrees of rotation of the microscope stage. The refractive index of light observed as well as the color and pleochroism of a mineral can aid in its identification. This procedure is very effective as minerals will exhibit positive identification characteristics based on their absorption of light and their natural cleavage angle.

Purpose: Allow calculation of density in identifying the mineral. However, this does not take into account of 'foreign' material situate inside (eg. gold/silver nuggets are said to have been found inside Neolithic jade pieces).

Purpose: View detail and tool marks as well as weathering structure. Mineral determination, and identifying the presence of weathering minerals, as well as quantifying trace minerals in thin section. (Thin section examination requires a small sample.)

For most scientific purposes a microscope can be a very effective as well as transportable method of mineral identification. A minerals weathering features as well as trace mineral deposits on the surface can be viewed through a microscope. Tool marks and repairs can also be seen. In addition, by examining the crystal structure of a sample to determine the level of deformation the sample has been exposed to can aid in determining source rock. The presence of calcite on the surface of a mineral can be indicative of the action of carbon dioxide and water and can be used to estimate exposure to weathering. Through the use of a polarizing (petrographic) microscope as well as a thin section sample of the specimen a determination of the crystalline properties of the mineral assemblage as well as the degree and presence of alteration minerals can be achieved. A close approximation of minerals present as well as their approximate percentages can be infered. A trained eye can use this information as well as associated minerals to determine approximate temperatures and environments of formation and estimate age based on weathering features and source mineral composition.

Purpose: Mineral Identification through hardness.

Mohs hardness test is a valuable tool in mineral identification of a large sample. Also this is a effective method of rapid mineral identification in the field. Is of limited use in dating a sample based on alteration minerals due to the requirement of large specimens. Can be use very effectivley on flat surfaces to delineate between jadeite and nephrite in larger samples; However, this test may leave a mark on the tested surface and thus this is less desirable than microscopic analysis.